The Dangers of Independence

The concept of the beata, which we discussed this week, is very interesting. These women lived lives devoted to the service of God, taking vows of chastity and abstaining from other vices, but did so without the supervision of an established monastery or church. This kind of independent lifestyle was rather unique for women at the time, especially one devoted to the church. Often women who lived on their own were associated with sinful activities and defiance of religious mandates. But these ladies claimed that they were living under God's will, relinquishing their own desires. Such a contradiction raised interesting issues in society and often caused complicated problems.

Being a beata must have been an attractive opportunity for women at the time. Much in the way that some convents allowed the nuns a comfortable lifestyle, the life of a beata offered even greater freedom and peace, without the intervention of the leaders who governed the monasteries. They could continue in their former position in society under the vague constrictions of their own personal vows to God. They often lived in communities together, supporting themselves by selling goods and performing other tasks without the domination of men or the urge to marry in order to maintain their way of life. But a group of women living together with no supervision made a lot of people very nervous. Church leaders, in particular, worried that if people, particularly women, were able to craft their own interpretations of the Scriptures without any censorship or surveillance they would be led astray and accept doctrines of highly questionable validity. Beatas were of particular concern to the Inquisition, since they claimed a role in the religious structure of the community but did not conform to the requirements of a traditional nun.

The case of Marina de San Miguel, an older beata brought before the Inquisition, is an example of how the skepticism of church leaders was aroused. In her first hearing, she appeared to be a pious, hard-working woman, having provided vital assistance to her family and saved enough money to buy her own house despite having several difficult challenges to overcome in her life. But as the Inquisition instructed her to "examine her memory" and determine the reason that she was brought in, she eventually confessed outrageous offenses such as having relations with the devil and a man named Juan Nunez. It is likely that she was a victim of Juan's misleading and was very confused about the condition of her soul, given the images in her visions, but to the church, it was clear that regardless of her intent, her independent lifestyle had led to her despicable condition that might have been prevented under the guidance of a monastery.

However, despite the threat posed to individual souls, I think the church also recognized the threat that the position of beata posed to their own institutions. The more that people felt they could interpret the Scriptures on their own and take care of their own struggle for salvation, the less power the church wielded in the community. This was likely the primary motivation for the excessive use of the Inquisition. Rooting out heretics emphasized the real Biblical truth, but those arrested also served as an example to those who were unsure of the church's power. In a time when the state was usurping much of the church's jurisdiction, it was vital that they maintain all control over religious thought. Growing independence, as usual, was a threat to established authority.

Rich and Religious?

In modern times, the most common image of a nun is a woman dressed in dark robes with her head covered, living in a convent without many contemporary conveniences or luxuries. However, in colonial Latin America, convents were much more diverse in their beliefs and practices than they typically are in North America today. I found it very interesting to consider what life was like in a convent for upper class women in that time period, especially compared to the life they would have had if they had not joined the convent.

For instance, a woman of the upper class who took vows to become a nun did not necessarily have to take a vow of poverty. In fact, some of them lived in rather fancy apartments with many of the luxuries that they had been accustomed to before entering the church. Beyond this, they could use some of their free time to study and engage in other pursuits according to their desires. Such a life was certainly not unattractive to a young woman from the upper class as an alternative to marriage. Religious convictions were certainly a strong motivation, since all good Catholics were concerned with the salvation of their souls, but it was also nice for them to be comfortable in the convent as they served the Lord and the church.

Had they not joined the church, such woman would most likely have been married at a fairly young age to a man from her social class. She would then have received her dowry, which was her portion of her parents' inheritance. As a wife she would have been in charge of her household, completing several important tasks and supervising the other members of the home in their jobs. There would not necessarily have been much time for intellectual pursuits or leisure activities, though wealth certainly provided more access to those activities. For a woman who valued solitude and a calm lifestyle, the convent could offer peace and time for enjoyments in addition to the ever-important prayer and service.

One famous woman who sought such an existence was Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz. She used her time in the convent to study philosophy and literature, and became one of the most prominent Latin American poets. Supported by the Viceroy, she was allowed to live a life of ease in order to follow and perfect her art. Had she been married or had to support herself as a doncella, such a lifestyle would probably not have been possible. The fact that the church was able to offer support to women seeking a life in the church led to a group of women practicing religious piety without sacrificing all of their liberties or individuality. While the vow of poverty and abstinence from other elements of the modern life was important to some, it was good for the church and the convents to allow diversity in the lives of nuns so that more women had access to a life of semi-independence.

Conflict and Tension

One of the most prominent elements of the cases that we read about this week was the comparison of homosexual relationships to traditional marriages and courtship rituals in order to define the status of the two people involved. When two men or two women went on paseo together, held hands, slept in the same bed, supported each other financially, etc., they were considered to be in a monogamous kind of physical relationship. One of the most convincing characteristics, however, was the jealous fights that couples often got into, attracting the attention of neighbors and alerting them to the fact that these two people must be involved with each other. This is still one of the ways we define relationships today. When little boys chase little girls around the playground and annoy them, their parents usually say it's because the boys like them. Later in life, if two people get into passionate arguments, particularly ones based on jealousy or similar offenses, they must be together. People tend to assume that if you don't care about someone, you won't bother to argue with them, and it won't hurt your feelings for them to give someone else attention. And usually this is true. But it's interesting to realize that fights can be a characteristic of passionate relationships. It's certainly not something we would usually assume unless we stopped to think about it. Romantic comedies almost always portray a couple who are being tormented by outside circumstances and who are also frustrating each other because of their differences and what usually turns out to be suppressed sexual tension. In fact, if I hear of a couple that never has arguments, I am usually skeptical of how sincere their relationship can be. Surely it doesn't have any depth, or they would have run into divisive issues by now. So while jealous fights and arguments are not necessarily a desirable quality in relationships, they do seem to be a widely accepted and sometimes successful measure of how intimate and sincere a relationship between two people is.

Crime Drama in Colonial Mexico

Normally when I think of law practices in the 1700's, I assume they were biased, unfair, and primitive. The negative connotations of the Inquisition and the role of the church in the trial and punishment of criminals makes it seem like the system must be corrupt. So I was somewhat surprised by the cases that we read of sexual crimes in colonial Mexico. Particularly the case of Catarina Maria and Juan Teioa. The complexities of the record and what actually took place in the proceedings reminded me of Law and Order or another of the crime shows that are so popular on television today.

I think the reason that these shows are so popular is that they have complex plots and mysterious outcomes, and at the same time show us a lot about our society and the way that different people act within it. Sometimes they display people that are considered "different" or outside of the normal confines of society, but often they tell stories of people that seem perfectly normal but have terrible experiences that cannot be explained without extensive investigation and exploration. The Latin American crime records are no different, containing information about the way things worked on a regular basis and what happened when someone came forward who did not fit with the typical attitude and structure of society.

The first important piece of information to be noted in this case is that the primary players are all Indians. Catarina Maria was an Indian woman, but was able to file a complaint on her own, without a father or brother doing it on her behalf. Juan, similarly, was given equal rights of trial and access to lawyers. His sister, also an Indian, was the most powerful witness in the case, and could give her testimony without corroboration from a man or a Spaniard. These facts alone show the law system to be less unfair than I would have assumed.

The story of these people seems just as complicated as a television episode as well. Catarina accuses Juan of rape, he claims she seduced him, his sister corroborates the point, other people discuss her sexual exploits in the past... And all of these revelations take place within the system of the courts, through formal testimony and documented statements. Certainly this goes beyond the quick, biased condemnations that are most often associated with the period. In doing show, it gives us evidence for looking at the motivations of people during this time, which were often no different than the desires that motivate people today.

For instance, we can ask what Catarina Maria's motivations were for turning Juan in. Her primary witness, she claimed, was Juan's sister, who ended up testifying against her by relating the contents of her love letters to Juan. Surely she would have known what the sister would say. Perhaps when her family discovered that she was no longer a virgin she accused Juan of rape to throw the blame off of herself, and they encouraged her to press charges. Regardless of her reasoning, the complexity of the case shows that women involved in sexual crimes in the colonial period were not just either an innocent victim or a whore, but could have complicated relationships which affected their sentencing in court.

Intentional Love

Patricia Seed's description of love in the colonial period reveals the heart and soul of their views of marriage and the way it changed. While in modern times we might think that love was not a factor in marriage several centuries ago, people at the time thought that love was extremely important, they just had a different concept of what love meant. It was inextricable with notions of honor and duty, and was tied to family obligations and expectations as well as individual emotion and desire. Furthermore, it effected the way that marriage relationships played out and the way that marriages were arranged to begin with.

In the early colonial period, when colonial society in Latin America was more focused on religion, marriage was most importantly seen as a form of honor and obedience to God. They were granted by the church and governed by the church, eventually becoming one of the Sacraments. Since a marriage was then involved in individual salvation, ideally both partners would be more committed to the guidelines for a successful union. The role that love played at that time was to validate the spiritual nature of a marriage and add to its religious justification. Spouses were instructed to love one another, and this love was displayed through an intentional commitment to the longevity of the marriage and pleasing one's partner.

"Love" remained a commitment even as marriage became more secularized. As wealth grew increasingly important to citizens of the Latin American colonies, unions were more commonly based on the union of finances and monetary holdings, instead of mutual acceptance and similarities in class and temperament. The state also took a lot of power away from the church, and the government now granted marriages and oversaw conflicts within them. However, love was still seen as important if the union were to survive, and it was thought to be shown through the responsibilities of a husband and wife. If a man upheld his honor by providing his wife with a comfortable life and protecting her reputation, that was a sign of his love for her. The love of a woman was displayed through faithfulness and the tasks that she performed within the home.

Basically, an honorable couple, whether joined by religious or financial concerns, would commit to love one another and grow more affectionate towards each other over time. The unions were not based on fleeting emotions or feelings that would not stand the trials of married life, but on an understood agreement that was to last a lifetime. Of course problems within marriages were still as numerous as they are today. People were not always content with their marriage partners, even if they had a positive opinion of their partner in the beginning of the relationship. When money became the most important aspect of a union, honorable conduct often took a lower priority. But I think their outlook on love and honor was probably a reasonable one. It took into account the true motivations for marriage, which were usually somewhat selfish and influenced by social norms instead of mutual regard. Yet they, in theory, vowed to be faithful to the union anyway, not only keeping up with their roles as a spouse, but earnestly seeking an affectionate relationship with their partner. It seems a much more honest attempt at a successful marriage, even though it was not necessarily more effective than our outlook on marriage today.

Chapter Seven of Indian Women in Early Mexico discusses the use of last wills and testaments in Mexica society. They were used by men and women alike to outline the inheritance of important family heirlooms and valuable possessions. The statistics given regarding these documents clearly show the unique situation of many Nahua people at the time, as they learned about Spanish culture and watched the effects of it on their own people.

One interesting aspect of these wills is their extensive use by women. In Spanish traditions (though not always in practice), women were not allowed to own property, but the Mexica valued the responsibilities of women, and the control of certain parts of land and possessions went along with their duties. Women usually left their wealth or holdings to their children, often to their daughters, in order to ensure that they would retain the rights promised them by the traditions of their people. The household goods that were often left to girls also helped teach them to value the traditional duties of a woman, and to expect the honor that their participation in society was supposed to give them.

The practice of writing wills was a Spanish one, and did not begin in Latin America until it was colonized. It would be easy to think, then, that the documents were drafted in order to please the conquistadors and conform to their society. But they were written in Nahuatl, which means they were meant for fellow natives to read and understand. It reminds me of the traditional Nahuatl dialogues, which were transcribed by a Dominican monk, but were intended for the education of the natives by their own leaders, and contained many praises of the old system, as well as references to the parallel gender system by which the Mexica society was structured. The wills, similarly, were a native adoption of a Spanish practice that they then used to serve their own motives, namely the preservation of traditions and society. The Spanish, after all, were vastly outnumbered by the natives in Latin America, so it was nearly impossible for them to spread their own culture as quickly as many people believe they did. They did not present a system that was infinitely better than the Mexica way of life, nor did they all spend much time trying to understand the native society. Consequently, the natives were able to retain much of their belief system, including their ideas about gender roles, by conforming the new Spanish practices to their traditional values.

The importance of these documents, then, comes both from their revelations about the preservation of gender and their revelations about the preservation of Nahua ideals in general. These natives were not ignorant or passive people. Though they are often portrayed as savages who practiced human sacrifice and were wiped out by the more educated Spanish, there were much broader motivations to their belief systems, based on their religion and their ideas about the order of the universe. Many of their attempts to pass these values through the generations were successful, which is why so much of the native culture remains prevalent in Latin America even in modern times.

The Commodity of Sex

The importance of credit to early modern Spaniards reveals much about the way that their economy and their society worked. The systems of trade based on trust and obligation emphasizes the importance of honor in Spanish culture and its influence on interactions between genders and classes. The general ideas of honor were attached to female chastity and male virility. The reputation of a Spanish woman was to be defended by her male family members at all costs, through the practice of dueling and other legal measures if necessary. This would certainly make it appear that sexual and gender identity was the most important component of honor to the Spanish at this time period. However, as Scott Taylor's article points out, the use of credit was just as important to the honor of men and women in early modern Spain as chastity was. The failure to pay a debt or honor a promise could bring about the same violence as an affront to virginity could. In fact, these were more common causes for such duels than slander or accusations of immorality. The entire economy was based largely on honor and the potential of one to repay his debt, and failure to uphold such promises could be damaging to many people. What is most interesting, though, is that in light of the importance of financial honor, the perception of sexual integrity seems to change. In fact, female virginity becomes almost a commodity that can be argued over much as the payment for any other product could be. While gender is important in the conception of honor, particularly among the elites, both men and women have other aspects involved in their social standing, as well as the ability to control such things. Due partly to the militaristic emphasis of the Reconquista, the fight for one's integrity and the integrity of family members was a part of life for men and women, and involved every aspect of one's reputation, not just the acceptable characteristics of gender.